"Is Jesus Really God?": How Christian Theology Assembles Biblical Witnesses to the Divinity of Jesus

Introduction 

Few figures in human history have generated as much theological, philosophical, and historical discussion as Jesus of Nazareth. Across centuries, debates have ranged from his historical existence to his divine status within Christian theology. Modern perspectives on Jesus vary widely: some view him as a moral teacher, others as a prophet, a divine being, or a social reformer. Within Christian orthodoxy, however, Jesus is understood not simply as a great human figure, but as God incarnate—a core tenet of Trinitarian doctrine. This article examines how Christian theology historically constructed this claim, drawing upon an interwoven web of Hebrew Bible texts, New Testament passages, and post-biblical interpretation.  

The Historical Existence of Jesus: A Brief Note

 Before turning to theological questions, it is worth noting that the historicity of Jesus of Nazareth is broadly accepted among historians of antiquity. References to Jesus appear in the works of several Roman and Jewish authors within roughly 150 years of his death, including Josephus, Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny the Younger, and Lucian of Samosata, among others. While the theological interpretations of Jesus remain divisive, his historical existence is generally not.

The Question of Identity: "Who Do You Say That I Am?"

At the heart of Christological debate is the question Jesus himself reportedly posed in the Gospels: "Who do you say that I am?" (Matt. 16:15). New Testament texts present Jesus making claims that Christians later interpreted as affirmations of divinity. Among the most cited are John 10:30 ("I and the Father are one"), John 14:9 ("Whoever has seen me has seen the Father"), and the climactic confession of Thomas in John 20:28 ("My Lord and my God!").

However, these passages come from the latest strata of the New Testament (particularly the Gospel of John), which reflects a fully developed high Christology. Earlier sources such as the Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, Luke) offer more nuanced or ambiguous Christological statements, where Jesus speaks of the Kingdom of God, calls himself the Son of Man, or acts with divine authority without making direct ontological claims to divinity.

The Christology of the Synoptics vs. John: Varied Voices in the New Testament

The Synoptic Gospels tend to emphasize Jesus' role as the anointed one (Messiah), Son of God, and eschatological judge, while John’s Gospel offers a more explicit identification between Jesus and God. For example, John’s "I am" sayings (e.g., John 8:58, "Before Abraham was, I AM") connect Jesus to the divine self-identification of YHWH in Exodus 3.

This diversity reflects how early Christian communities struggled to articulate Jesus’ identity within the monotheistic framework inherited from Second Temple Judaism. Trinitarian and incarnational theologies, which later became orthodox, emerged through centuries of interpretive development, drawing on all these strands.

Forgiveness of Sins and Divine Prerogatives

One early argument for Jesus' divinity is that he exercises divine prerogatives, especially the forgiveness of sins (Mark 2:7). In the cultural and religious context of Second Temple Judaism, forgiveness was understood as something God alone could grant. Jesus’ actions and words here create what theologians sometimes call "Christological pressure points" within the narrative, forcing early audiences to grapple with his unique authority.

Theological Models and Apologetic Frameworks: The "Liar, Lunatic, or Lord" Argument

In the 20th century, C.S. Lewis famously popularized a trilemma: Jesus was either a liar, a lunatic, or Lord. This apologetic model rests on the assumption that the Gospel accounts preserve historically accurate, direct claims to divinity from Jesus himself. Historically, however, many biblical scholars argue that such formulations (especially in John) reflect later theological reflection rather than the ipsissima verba (exact words) of the historical Jesus.

Names, Titles, and Divine Identity: Yahweh, Elohim, Theos

A central strategy in Christian theological argumentation has been to map Old Testament names and titles for God onto Jesus. The term "Yahweh" (LORD), "Elohim" (God), and the Greek "Theos" (God) all appear in later Christian interpretation as references to Jesus.

For instance:

• John 20:28 records Thomas addressing the risen Jesus as "My Lord and my God" (ho kurios mou kai ho theos mou).
• Romans 10:9 and Philippians 2:11 describe Jesus as "Lord" (Kurios), the Greek term used in the Septuagint for the Tetragrammaton (YHWH).
• Hebrews 1:8 applies Psalm 45:6-7 to Jesus, calling him "God" (Theos) and emphasizing his eternal throne.

These textual links became crucial for later doctrinal formulations, such as the Nicene Creed, which defined Jesus as "God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God."

Christophanies and the Angel of the Lord: Retrospective Theological Interpretation

A notable interpretive move within Christian theology is the reading of Old Testament theophanies (divine appearances) as pre-incarnate appearances of Christ. One prominent example is the "angel of the Lord" figure in texts like Exodus 3 (burning bush) or Genesis 22 (the near-sacrifice of Isaac).

From a historical-critical perspective, these Hebrew Bible passages do not refer to Jesus or anticipate a Trinitarian theology. However, for later Christian exegetes like Augustine of Hippo and others, these were seen as Christophanies—early manifestations of the Logos before the Incarnation. This theological retrojection demonstrates how Christian theologians reread Hebrew Bible texts in light of New Testament Christology.

Divine Attributes: Eternality, Omniscience, Omnipresence, Sovereignty, Sinlessness

Christian theological argumentation also emphasizes that Jesus demonstrates attributes reserved for God:

• Eternality: John 1:1, Hebrews 1:8–11
• Omniscience: Jesus’ knowledge of people’s thoughts, future events, and hidden realities (e.g., John 11:14, Matthew 21:2-4)
• Omnipresence: Promises of presence with followers (Matthew 28:20)
• Sovereignty: Jesus portrayed as ruling over all powers (1 Peter 3:22, Revelation 19:16)
• Sinlessness: New Testament assertions of Jesus’ moral perfection (Hebrews 4:15)
• Worship and Religious Practice: Jesus as the Object of Devotion

In the context of Second Temple Judaism’s strict monotheism, worship directed toward any being other than God was viewed as idolatrous. Yet in multiple New Testament texts, Jesus receives worship (Matthew 2:11, John 9:38, Matthew 28:9, 17). For later Christian theology, this served as further confirmation of his divine status.

Soteriology and Creation: Jesus as Creator and Savior

Another key pillar in theological constructions of Jesus’ divinity is his role in both creation and salvation:

• Creator: John 1:3, Colossians 1:16, Hebrews 1:2 all present Jesus as the agent through whom the universe was made.
• Savior: Old Testament texts state that only God saves (Isaiah 43:11), yet the New Testament applies the title "Savior" directly to Jesus (Titus 2:13).

The Progressive Revelation of Trinitarian Doctrine

The Trinitarian framework—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—was not fully articulated within the pages of the New Testament but developed over subsequent centuries. Nevertheless, Christian interpreters have pointed to scriptural moments as seeds of the doctrine:

• Plural references like Genesis 1:26 ("Let us make humanity") and Isaiah 6:8 ("Who will go for us")
• The baptismal formula in Matthew 28:19
• Pauline benedictions (2 Corinthians 13:14)

Conclusion: From Biblical Texts to Christian Doctrine

The belief in Jesus as God emerges from a complex theological trajectory: rooted in Second Temple Jewish categories, refracted through the diverse voices of the New Testament, and systematized in the creeds and councils of the early church. Christian theologians assembled a multi-layered Christology by retroactively rereading Hebrew Bible texts, interpreting New Testament claims, and engaging in centuries of doctrinal debate.

While many theological traditions affirm Jesus' divinity as a matter of faith, the historical process by which that belief was constructed remains a fascinating case study in how religious communities negotiate scripture, interpretation, and doctrine across time.