How Did Jesus Die?

The statement "Jesus died on the cross" may seem simple and straightforward, but the historical realities surrounding crucifixion in the Roman world—and the details preserved in the canonical Gospels—point to a far more complex and brutal process leading to Jesus' death.

We begin in the Garden of Gethsemane, where the Gospel of Luke records that Jesus, in deep distress, experienced a phenomenon described as sweating blood: “And being in anguish, he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat was like drops of blood falling to the ground” (Luke 22:44, NIV). While there is scholarly debate about the textual authenticity of this verse (as some early manuscripts omit it), the description has often been linked to a rare but documented medical condition called "hematohidrosis," in which extreme stress causes capillaries to rupture in the sweat glands, producing a bloody sweat. As one Christian apologetic work conveys, "What this did was set up the skin to be extremely fragile so that when Jesus was flogged by the Roman soldier the next day, his skin would be very, very sensitive."[1] By this time, Jesus may have likely been in danger of going into shock, and could die unless given fluids, which he clearly was not. 

Following his arrest, Jesus was subjected to physical abuse both by members of the Jewish leadership and by Roman soldiers (Mark 14:65; Matthew 26:67–68; John 19:1–3). The Roman flogging (Latin flagellatio) was particularly brutal. The typical instrument was a flagrum—a short whip with multiple leather thongs, often embedded with bits of bone or metal designed to tear flesh.[2] Roman scourging was intended to weaken the victim to the point of near-death prior to crucifixion, with no legal limit to the number of lashes administered. Historical records such as those from Josephus and Seneca the Younger attest to the brutality of Roman floggings and their capacity to cause massive blood loss, shock, and sometimes death even before crucifixion.[3]

Jesus was also mocked with a crown of thorns (Matthew 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2), a gesture with both physical and symbolic cruelty. Scholars have suggested that the plant used could have been the Ziziphus spina-christi (nabk), common in the area around Jerusalem and known for its long, sharp thorns.[4] The Gospel narratives note that after these abuses, Jesus was forced to carry his own cross—or more likely, the horizontal beam (patibulum)—to the execution site at Golgotha, before being assisted by Simon of Cyrene (Mark 15:21; Matthew 27:32; Luke 23:26).

Crucifixion itself was a method designed for maximum pain and public humiliation. It was reserved primarily for slaves, rebels, and criminals who posed a threat to Roman order. Victims were typically stripped naked, affixed to the cross with ropes or nails, and left to die slowly over hours or even days. Archaeological evidence—such as the remains of a first-century crucified man named Yehohanan found near Jerusalem—confirms the historical practice of nailing victims through the wrists or forearms and the feet.[5]

The Gospels describe Jesus' crucifixion in terms consistent with known Roman practices: he was nailed to the cross, mocked by passersby, and offered sour wine to drink (Mark 15:23, 36; Matthew 27:34, 48; John 19:28–30). The physical cause of death in crucifixion is still a matter of some medical debate. Suggested mechanisms include asphyxiation due to impaired respiration, hypovolemic shock from blood loss, cardiac arrhythmia, or heart failure brought on by physical trauma and exhaustion.[6] John’s Gospel adds a detail of post-mortem piercing with a spear, with blood and water flowing from the wound (John 19:34). This has been interpreted variously—both in ancient and modern sources—as potential evidence for cardiac rupture or fluid buildup in the pleural cavity (pericardial effusion).[7]

Roman authorities were known to leave crucifixion victims on display for days as a deterrent, as famously happened to the followers of Spartacus along the Appian Way in 71 BCE.[8] The Gospels, however, record that Jesus’ body was removed the same day, in accordance with Jewish burial customs and laws concerning the defilement of the land (Deuteronomy 21:22–23; John 19:31).

Historically, what can be said with relative certainty—based on both Roman historical practice and the canonical texts—is that Jesus of Nazareth was executed by crucifixion under the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, at the instigation of local authorities in Jerusalem. This is corroborated not only by the Gospels but also by early non-Christian sources like Tacitus (Annals 15.44) and Josephus (Antiquities 18.3.3), making the crucifixion one of the most firmly established events in the life of Jesus from a historical standpoint.[9]

Notes
[1] Alexander Metherell, M.D., Ph.D., in Lee Strobel, The Case for Christ (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 195. See also William D. Edwards et al., “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” JAMA 255, no. 11 (1986): 1455–1463.
[2] John P. Mattingly, Crucifixion: Its Origin and Application to Christ (Unpublished Th.M. Thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1961).
[3] Josephus, Jewish War 6.5.3; Seneca the Younger, De Consolatione ad Marciam, 20.3.
[4] J.H. Bernard, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to St. John, ICC (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1928), 2:629.
[5] Vassilios Tzaferis, “Crucifixion—The Archaeological Evidence,” Biblical Archaeology Review 11, no. 1 (1985): 44–53.
[6] Edwards et al., “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” JAMA (1986).
[7] James Thompson, cited in Paul S. Taylor, "How Did Jesus Christ Die?," Christian Answers Network, 2003; Samuel Houghton, “What Was the Physical Cause of the Death of Jesus?” British Medical Journal (1903): 556–557.
[8] Appian, Civil Wars 1.120.
[9] Tacitus, Annals 15.44; Josephus, Antiquities 18.3.3.